The Vietnamese Resistance Against Mongol Invasions

The people of what is now Vietnam are renowned for their enduring resistance against formidable empires, with their spirited defense against Mongol invasions being a notable example. This article explores how the two kingdoms that comprised modern-day Vietnam—Đại Việt in the north and Champa in the south—managed to defend their independence against the incursions of Khubilai Khan’s Mongol-ruled Yuan Dynasty in the late 13th century.

Background of the Kingdoms

The Kingdom of Đại Việt, also known as Annam to the Chinese, had established dominance over northern Vietnam since the early 11th century. Its capital, Thăng Long, is present-day Hanoi. Under the ruling Lý Dynasty, and later the Trần Dynasty which succeeded it in the 1220s, Đại Việt thrived as a wealthy, predominantly Buddhist kingdom. The Trần Dynasty, known for centralizing power and expanding agricultural production, had good relations with neighboring states. They maintained tribute and trade with the Song Dynasty to the northeast, conducted trade with the Dali Kings in Yunnan to the northwest, and enjoyed a cordial relationship with the Chams to the south.

The Chams, part of the Austronesian people, inhabited central and southern Vietnam for centuries. Historically fragmented into smaller Hindu and Muslim kingdoms, the Chams unified in the 12th century to repel invasions from the Khmer Empire of Cambodia. By the mid-12th century, they had formed a more cohesive kingdom under the ‘King of Kings,’ based in Vijaya, which was the political structure of Champa.

Mongol Invasions

In the mid-13th century, the Mongol Empire, under Khubilai Khan, sought to expand its influence into Southeast Asia. Đại Việt was the first to face Mongol incursions. In 1253, following the conquest of the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan by Khubilai’s general Uriyangqadai, the Mongols approached Đại Việt. The Mongols sought to secure free passage through Đại Việt to open a new front in their war against the Song Dynasty. Uriyangqadai’s initial campaign in winter 1257 saw Mongol forces confront Đại Việt’s defenses, but despite some victories, the Mongols faced challenges due to the local geography and logistical issues.

Uriyangqadai’s campaign ended prematurely as he had to return to meet Möngke Khan’s schedule for the Song campaign. The Trần kings, despite the Mongol withdrawal, continued to maintain their relations with the Song Dynasty and Champa, which became increasingly strained as Khubilai Khan sought direct allegiance.

In 1282, Khubilai Khan’s ambitions to assert control over Đại Việt and Champa escalated. Following the fall of the Song Dynasty in 1279, Khubilai grew impatient with Đại Việt and Champa’s reluctance to acknowledge his supremacy. The Mongols initially attacked Champa, but their campaign faced difficulties. The Cham leadership managed to evade capture, and the Mongol forces struggled with the tropical environment and local resistance.

The Second and Third Invasions

In 1285, a renewed Mongol invasion led by Khubilai’s son Toghon and an Uyghur general, Ariq Khaya, faced strong resistance from Đại Việt. The Mongol forces initially achieved success but soon found themselves overstretched. Despite capturing Thăng Long and defeating several Việt armies, Toghon’s forces faced severe logistical challenges, including disease and ambushes. The Mongol retreat, marked by the capture and destruction of Yuan forces, was a significant defeat for Khubilai Khan.

The Mongols attempted a third invasion in 1287, with a large force and an ambitious plan. However, the campaign suffered from similar issues as previous ones: supply problems, tropical diseases, and effective Vietnamese resistance. The turning point came in April 1288, when Prince Hưng Đạo of Đại Việt orchestrated a decisive naval ambush at the Bạch Đằng River. Yuan ships, lured into a trap, were immobilized by hidden stakes and subsequently destroyed. The defeat of the Mongol fleet and the destruction of their army marked the end of the invasions.

Conclusion

The Mongol invasions of Đại Việt and Champa ended in failure, largely due to the resilience and strategic acumen of Vietnamese leaders like Prince Hưng Đạo. The Mongol leadership’s underestimation of Vietnamese resistance and logistical overreach contributed to their defeat. Both Đại Việt and Champa suffered greatly from the invasions, but they ultimately preserved their independence.

Following these events, relations between the Yuan Dynasty and the Vietnamese kingdoms normalized. Đại Việt and Champa agreed to tribute and nominal submission, avoiding further Mongol assaults. The resilience of the Vietnamese people in the face of foreign invasions remains a significant chapter in their history.

For a deeper understanding of Vietnam’s history and its struggles with foreign powers, including the Vietnam War, check out MagellanTV’s documentary series. Their collection offers extensive coverage of Vietnam’s dynastic history and the impact of global conflicts on the nation.